A Single Needle; Single Handily Changing the Game Essay Example for Free

A Single Needle; Single Handily Changing the Game Essay Americas Pastime has been the true root of sports in the United States of America. Baseball blew up in the late 19th century towards the end of the American Civil War. Before there were TVs, internet, or DVDs, baseball is what kids did for fun. It became the thing to do if you were a white male going into the 20th century, and that was just the beginning of a long bittersweet road of the game of baseball. Up until the 1990s many greats had walked in between the lines showing off their pure god given talent, then an era came along that makes every baseball fan cringe, the Steroids Era. Steroids started to spread throughout the league like wildfire, and sadly no one was doing anything about it. The only thing administration, owners, authorities, and fans had were suspicion no one knew for sure if these record breaking seasons were real or all just a fluke. The greats like Hank Aaron, Babe Ruth, Willie Mays, Lou Gehrig, and Ted Williams all have been being surpassed in the record books by Jose Canseco, Barry Bonds, Roger Clemens, Alex Rodriguez, Mark McGuire, and plenty more players due to the use of Performance Enhancing Drugs. The use of illegal Steroids in baseball has single handily degraded and disgraced the great game that once was proud to be known as Americas Pastime. The man who started it all and really brought Performance Enhancing Drugs (PEDs) to the baseball scene in the late 1980s was Oakland Athletics outfielder, Jose Canseco. Once Canseco starting showing his teammates how influential these drugs were to their performance through his own personal achievements it wasnt long before a large amount of players were using PEDs. Canseco states in his book, Juiced: Wild Times, Rampant Roids, Smash Hits, and How Baseball Got Big that, About 85% of Major Leaguers have used it (Canseco). The MLB rarely, if at all tested for steroids during this time of the Steroids Era and if they did there was no penalty for testing positive. At the time it was virtually a win win for the players, they could juice up, exceed the stats they could only dream about, and never get in trouble during the process. Performance Enhancing Drugs became an epidemic in the world of baseball, but not only was it enhancing players performance, it was enhancing every aspect of reve nue a ball club could ever imagine. The Record books were once again open and ready for business. Athletes such as Barry Bonds, Jose Canseco, Mark McGuire, and so forth were smashing homeruns and going up on the charts little by little for the all time homerun record holder, Hank Aaron. This excitement on the field attracted more fans through these steroid years than baseball had ever seen, and when there are fans there is money, and when there is money there is no concern. The Major League of Baseball had been oblivious to the illegal use of Steroids over the years. Until 2002 there were no penalties for testing positive for PEDs. The new rules stated, A first time offense would only result in treatment for the player (Baseball-Almanac). Not one player was sentenced to any suspensions for this crime, until the Bay Area Laboratory Cooperative (BALCO) steroid scandal came to light, and brought out many of the All-Stars of the MLB to the top of the list. Victor Cante the founder of BALCO was a god to the sports world. He was the guy that not only supplied athletes with their steroi ds, but also had ways to cheat the tests so they could come up clean. Testing companies such as the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and the U.S Anti Doping-Agency (USADA) are always trying to improve the efficiency of the tests to make cheating near impossible if not totally full proof, but as those agencies are working to stop the cheaters workers at BALCO labs are finding ways once again come up with a new way to slide by the new and improved tests on the market (Quinn). So in 2005 The MLB created a new testing policy that was accepted by the players and owners that said, The first positive test will result in a suspension of up to ten days. The second positive test will result in a suspension of thirty days. The third positive test will result in a suspension of sixty days. The fourth positive test will result in a suspension of one full year. Finally, the fifth positive test will result in a penalty at the discretion of the Commissioner of Major League Baseball. Players will be tested at least once per year, with a chance that several players can be tested numerous times per year (Baseball-Almanac). That wasnt the last adjustment Bud Selig, the Commissioner of the Major League of Baseball, was going to make to the steroid testing policy. On December 13, 2007, Greg Mitchell, an investigator who was appointed by Bud Selig in 2006 to investigate the use of Performance Enhancing Drugs in the MLB, presented a 409 page report to Selig showing his investigation and revealing 89 alleged players who used steroids during their career (Healey). Once Bud Selig had been shown the report, his 3rd written drug testing policy came in to play which was known as the Three strikes and youre out approach (Verhaeghe). This final policy stated that, The first positive test would result in a fifty game suspension. The second positive test would result in a one-hundred game suspension. Finally, the third positive test would result in a lifetime suspension from Major League Baseball (Baseball Almanac). Bud Selig and the rest of the administration inside of the Major League of Baseball had finally seen the light, and properly taken action on how to cut down the use of Performance Enhancing Drugs throughout the MLB. Once the Mitchell Report was released many super stars and role models for fans all around the world were printed in black under the category of the illegal use of steroids throughout their career. The most popular player named in the Mitchell Report due to his court and trial issues would have to be 7 time Cy Young winner, Roger Clemens. Once he saw that his name had been brought to light in the report he went to Capitol Hill to clear his name off the list that he felt he didnt need to be on. Little did he know that when made the statement, I appreciate the opportunity to tell this Committee and the public-under oath-what I have been saying all along: I have never used steroids, human growth hormone [HGH], or any other type of illegal performance enhancing drugs. I think these types of drugs should play no role in athletics at any level, and I fully support Senator Mitchells conclusions that steroids have no place in baseball. However, I take great issue with the reports allegation that I used these substances. Let me be clear again: I did not. (Healey) That he was entering a world of charges when committing perjury in a court of law. Many of the players claimed their innocence like Clemens did, but in the end they all served the types of charges. The original group of all time Baseball greats like Hank Aaron, Babe Ruth, Cy young, etc. set a high standard for the Players after them to strive for and gave them something to achieve. Never in their minds would they of thought that the game of baseball would have turned out the way it is today. These modern day All-stars who cheated and used Performance Enhancing Drugs for a shortcut just to go ahead of someones hard work and love for the game as well to achieve their personal and selfish desires should be punished and have their awards and accolades stripped from them and taken out of the record books as if they were never there to begin with. The use of Performance Enhancing Drugs has put a permanent stain on the name of Baseball and what it is truly about. Bud Selig and the Major league of Baseball has come a long way regarding minimizing the use of Performance Enhancing Drugs by enforcing harsher penalties and consequences for testing Positive for steroids. As the years have gone by thanks to the leagues stricter policies on testing positive for PEDs the amount of players getting suspended for steroid use has decreased on a year to year basis. The Major League of Baseball will never be able to completely take Performance Enhancing Drugs out of the game, but with the right consequences, and appropriate policies they will be able continue to keep the use of Steroids at a very low rate and never re-enter the once dreaded time known as the Steroids Era ever again. Works Cited Healey, Daniel. FALL OF THE ROCKET: STEROIDS IN BASEBALL AND THE CASE AGAINEST ROGER CLEMENS. Marquette Sports Law Review 19.1 (September 2008): SPORTDiscus. Web. 8 November 2011. Roger The Rocket Clemens is known to be one of the best of all-time to step on the rubber in the game of Major League Baseball. The Seven-time Cy Young winner was ultimately unstoppable in the last half of his career. He was just another great phenom in the baseball world until December 13, 2007 when the Mitchell Report was released, revealing a 409-page report that was sent to the commissioner of baseball (Bud Selig) that investigated the illegal use of steroids and Performance Enhancing Drugs used by players in Major League Baseball. There were over 80 players put on this report, but the one who stood out the most was Roger Clemens himself. On February 13th 2008 he went to Capitol Hill to argue the allegations against him saying, I appreciate the opportunity to tell this Committee and the public-under oath-what I have been saying all along: I have never used steroids, human growth hormone [HGH], or any other type of illegal performance enhancing drugs. I think these types of drugs should play no role in athletics at any level, and I fully support Senator Mitchells conclusions that Steroids have no place in baseball. However, I take great issue with the reports allegation that I used these substances. Let me be clear again: I did not. Once Clemens had stated that it put a rather large target on his back not only by investigators but also the judicial system. They were trying to get him to admit using illegal steroids, but now as well they were going after him on counts of perjury. After 2 years of gathering enough evidence and testimonies on August 19, 2010 a Federal Grand Jury Indicted Roger Clemens on six counts, one count of obstruction of congress, three counts of false statements, and two counts of perjury. On July 13, 2011 Clemens first trial began, but on the second day the judge ruled a mistrial due to prosecutorial misconduct. For now Roger Clemens is a free man, but legal sources say that he will be retried. I will be using the Mitchell Report and the Roger Clemens trial to portray that not only is the use of steroids extremely risky and unhealthy but also that its against the law and you will get caught one way or another. 1991 to 2002 was known as the Steroid Era in professional baseball. Over those years particularly in 1995 after the cancellation of the 1994 playoffs and World Series the statistics of a majority of the players skyrocketed, which in retrospect played a huge role in filling the empty seats back up after the 1994 strike. Ill be explaining that up until to this point in time the MLB did not have strict regulations on testing for the use of Performance Enhancing Drugs (PEDs) Kuenster, John. Major League Player Records Dishonored by Steroid Users. Baseball Digest. 62.2 (March 2008): SPORTDiscus. Web. 8 November 2011. John Kuenster touches on a very valuable subject when it comes to records, and honors given in the MLB. Back in early in mid 1900s the greats of the game like, Babe Ruth, Ted Williams, Hank Aaron, Joe DiMaggio, Bob Feller, and Ernie Banks. They all set legitimate records that should never be shadowed by the players who eventually broke them. These few players all had something in common. That was hard work and love for the game. They didnt use PEDs to up there stats or to get to a higher number in a certain category. These historic greats earned their records off pure talent that was god given and worked hard to mature. The greats of our time such as, Barry Bonds, Roger Clemens, Alex Rodriguez, or Mark McGwire also hold records like men mentioned earlier. The only difference between the past greats and the current greats is that these new all-stars were accused of using Steroids to achieve their records. Not only are the players the ones to blame for the whole Steroid Era. Stricter steps should have been taken from the get go through the league to enforce steroid testing to ensure the safety and fair play in professional play of baseball before the use of steroids spread like wildfire through the MLB. Will records and awards be stripped from players whove been tested positive for performing enhancing drugs? We dont know for now, but who knows what the future holds. This article about dishonoring the awards given to players who have achieved them unfairly will allow me to voice my opinion on the topic of record breakers involving steroids. I personally am against the use of steroids solely because all it does it degrade the great game of baseball. Even though these cheaters didnt use PEDs their whole career and achieved some of their record off pure talent doesnt change the fact they broke the rules that is stated in the contract thats signed by every professional player. Its not fair that historys greatest baseball players prior to the steroid era should be passed up in the record books by players that made themselves better by an illegal drug. Not only is it a disgrace to the violators name, but more importantly its a disgrace to the game of baseball. Rutecki, Jared. A Study of Media Impact on Public Opinion Regarding Performance Enhancement in Major League Baseball. Open Sports Sciences Journal 3 (2010): SPORTSDiscus. Web. 8 November 2011. A chart in the article, A study of Media Impact on Public Opinion Regarding Performance Enhancement in Major League Baseball shows the percent of the coverage on specific sports and PEDs through 1968 to 2006 in Sports Illustrated, Newsweek, and Time. Baseball ranks number one in all 3 magazines with 43 percent, 39 percent, and 39 percent. Coming in second was football with a significant lower percent of 19, 14, and 15. Over the years magazine articles about PEDs have increased by a huge amount due to the popularity in steroid use among professional athletes. With the widespread use of steroids in sports particularly baseball, its apparent that the talk of it in magazines and media in general has shot up too. When something isnt a public issue the media obviously isnt interested in it which is why steroids in the earlier years werent written and talked about much. When the Steroid Era came into play thats when the number of articles in magazines skyrocketed year by year and it all of sudden became a huge topic in our society. I will also be touching on the fact that even when people knew that steroids were an issue media didnt start writing about it like crazy until the 104 MLB players tested positive for PEDs in 2003. From that year on the number of articles per year were above 49. The media writes what sells and in this day and age information and insider news about the world of baseball and steroids will always sell. Solberg, Joe. Performance-Enhancing Drug Use in Baseball: The Impact of Culture. Ethics and Behavior 21 (April 2011): 91-102. Philosophers Index. Web. 8 November 2011. Joe Solberg explains that once the steroid era of baseball blew up and became steady that it wasnt out of the norm anymore, it became part of the culture. Once everyone was doing it the person below them had to use PEDs in order to get to the next level. The use of Steroids is a ladder that started in the pros and worked its way down to the minors. Major League Contracts are more than less based off offensive performance rather than defensive performance. To be more specific on offensive performance homeruns are what really can land you a big money contract. Over the years the biggest category that PEDs have helped is homeruns. Of course players want a lot of money, and in order to get that money is to hit homeruns, and in order to increase the amount of homeruns is to take performance enhancing drugs. Players will do what they have to do in order to make the money that they are satisfied with, and as a result for most players it is to partake in using steroids to increase their status as an all-star. The information I gathered in this article will help me explain the players motives for wanting to use PEDs. Its not only used just to break records and be known as an all-star even though that is a plus that comes with it, but its the fact that if the person above you is using these substances then in order for you to excel above him and potentially take his spot you almost feel obligated to take PEDs as well. It was once a bad thing to be associated with the group known to take steroids back when it was a rare thing to do. Now days its such a common thing to partake in its part of the culture, its fairly normal in the MLB now to use PEDs. Sommers, Paul. The Changing Hitting Performance Profile in Major League Baseball, 1966-2006. Journal of Sports Economics 9.4 (August 2008) SPORTSDiscus. Web. 8 November 2011. Paul Sommers showed charts over the decades of average years played by an average starter in the pros. It went from 5.2 years in the 60s to 6 in a half years in 2006. That shows that the use of steroids in the MLB increased a players career by almost 2 years. He also explains that the use of PEDs in baseball lets you peak at a higher level of skill. A persons overall skill level will increase by a big number while using steroids. Someone hitting .267 without the use of steroids could jump anywhere from a .324 to .378 average depending on the person. With all the statistics shown throughout the article its proven that Performance enhancing drugs increase a players batting average, peak, years played, MPH, and overall skill level. Before the 1960s after a players peak their batting average tended to decline steadily due to falling off from their prime, but after the 1960s a large amount of players started to excel past their peak year and raise their batting averages past their prime which was unusual. As we know now the reason for that was the use of PEDs. After 2004 the statistics seemed to start trending again like the 1960s due to the random and mandatory drug tests which disabled the players to partake in using Anabolic Steroids of HGH. I will be using this information to show how all PEDs have been proven in many to not only better athletes, but make them more durable and tack on extra years of successful productivity past their prime. PEDs arent physically making them younger, but they sure are making them produce younger aged stats in a past prime aged body. Stone, Brad. Another Poison Pill Newsweek 146.7 (August 15 2005): Academic Search Complete. Web. 8 November 2011. The MLB is by far the top sport when it comes to the abuse of Performance Enhancing Drugs, but yet it holds the weakest punishment in the sports world for testing positive. Rafael Palmeiro in 2008 tested positive for Performance Enhancing Drugs in early August of 2008 just months after he testified before a U.S congressional committee stating that he had never used PEDs in his life. Not only did he test positive for steroids, he failed the test after lying under oath in a court of law, and all he was punished with through the MLB was a 10-day suspension and a $164,000 fine. Due to the particular steroid Palmeiro took, Stanozonol, which travels through your digestive system within 2 weeks, makes it hard for the court to prove that Palmeiro was lying when he testified. Baseball wants to stop the abuse of Steroids, but at the same time it seems like all these players that test positive these substances just get slaps on the wrist and are told not to do it again. If you want a problem to come to a halt you have to go the extra distance in order to get the results youre looking for. PEDs have been persistent in the MLB for decades now; telling a player to stop will ultimately not stop them. There needs to be an ultimatum put into action to make the abusers consider that these PEDs arent worth the loss of their career. Every other sport that has extremely harsh penalties if tested positive for PEDs dont have a very high percent of positive tests because the players dont want to take the risk to put their career on the line. In the MLBs case they arent putting a severe enough consequence for the use of Performance Enhancing Drugs. My main point Ill be using from this article is that if you want the use of PEDs to lower then you have to put consequences that the players dont want to deal with out there in order to produce more negative resulting drug tests. Quinn, Tom BASEBALLS STEROID ERA. Mens Fitness 23. (August 2007): SPORTSDiscus. Web. 8 November 2011 Throughout the history of baseball testing for either steroids or street drugs really hasnt been a big part of the games policy. Players played the game and what they did off the field was their own business. Once the early 80s hit, and PEDs came on the scene the use of them among players got out of hand. It became an almost regular regime for a majority of the MLB. Tests were eventually being given, but that didnt stop the players. When theres motive to do illegal substances theres always the backup plan to keep these athletes out of trouble. There were plenty of ways to come up clean on a test, and when the testers would find a way to stop it, Victor Cante and his crew at BALCO labs would just simply find another way to cheat. Even when the few unlucky players get caught all they have to do is admit it and simply explain they were told it was something else. For Example, Barry Bonds, when he spoke in front of the BALCO grand jury he came clean about all the PEDs he had taken, but the catch was he stated that he was oblivious to what he was actually using. People of this stature will make their illegal decisions, but dont think they dont have all the answers for when the going gets tough. Ill be using Quinns article BASEBALL STEROIDS ERA to inform how little baseball can really do to not only catch these users, but to actually put a stop to the Performance Enhancing Drugs. If not cheating tests to save their own ass these professional athletes will just find a perfect window of time to where they know they wont be tested in the offseason to fit in a couple cycles here and there to maintain the gains through using PEDs. Testing companies such as the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and the U.S Anti Doping-Agency (USADA) will never stop trying to improve the efficiency of the tests to make cheating near impossible if not totally full proof, but as those agencies are working to stop the cheaters dont think the cheaters at BALCO labs arent finding ways to break through and find loop holes in their tests. Verhaeghe, Dan. Bud Selig Lays Down the Hammer on Performance Enhancing Drugs. Bleacher Report. (January 2008): Web. 30 November 2011

Hydropower plants Essay Example for Free

Hydropower plants Essay Introduction In this paper I’m going to investigate the characteristics features of the hydropower as one of the potential alternative key energy source. I will discuss advantages and disadvantages of hydropower plans and compare them with the traditional means of energy production. I will also discuss the Environmental and Social Impact Assessment of the hydropower plants and investigate their application on the example of the hydropower plants in China and Argentina. I will also touch the topic of legal regulation of the hydropower plants construction and operation. Notion of Hydropower 1. 1. Definition of hydroelectricity The main focus of this paper is hydroelectricity, which can be briefly defined as electricity produced by hydropower. This is a quite potential source of electricity in the contemporary world, which now provides round 715,000 MWe, which constitute about 19% of world electricity . I’m mainly concerned with the advantages and disadvantages of the hydroelectricity, which are the main factors determining the future development of this source of energy. First, let us determine the main advantages of hydroelectricity. 1. 2. Historic facts about the oldest hydropower stations Hydropower can be considered as one of the oldest and one of the most powerful and perspective means of electric power generation. Among the most famous oldest hydro-electric power stations the following can be listed: Cragside, located in Rothbury, England, which was constructed in 1870, Appleton, situated in Wisconsin, USA built in 1882, Niagara Falls in New York completed in 1895, Duck Reach, located in Launceston, Tasmania, operating since 1895, Decew Falls 1, situated in St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada, which began its work in 1898 . 1. 3. Advantages of hydroelectricity This first aspect to be discussed in this section is the connection between hydroelectricity and economics. Among the main advantages of hydroelectricity is that it eliminates of the cost of fuel. Thus, the cost of the operation of hydroelectric plants is quite low if compared with other means of electricity production. This is particularly important now when the price of fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas or coal constantly grows. Hydropower plants do not require the use of fuel . The other economic value of the hydroelectric plants is that they tend to operate much longer than fuel-fired plants. Thus, the usual operation time of the hydroelectric plants is 50 or even up to 100 years ago. Besides, hydroelectric power plants involve fewer personnel due to the fact that they are highly automated. This leads to the reduction of the expenses associated with the high labor cost . Construction of the hydropower plant is particularly justified in the places where a dam has multiple purposes. For example, it was estimated that the construction costs of the Three Gorges Dam will be covered by the electricity sold in just 5 7 years of full generation . The other possible economic benefit of hydroelectric plants is that they can create other activities. For example, well-considered hydroelectric schemes can create picturesque water sports, which draw attention of tourists and become the additional source of revenue. Quite many countries resort to the use of reservoirs for fish farming . Besides, some dams can be used for many purposes. Thus, dams used primarily for irrigation may also serve the source of the constant water supply, which is beneficial for fish farming. The other positive moment of large hydro dams is their ability to control floods. Thus, they are beneficial for the people living downstream of the project. In some cases dams are proved to improve transportation through creation of large reservoirs and elimination of rapids . Further, I would like to discuss the connection between the operation of the hydropower plants and greenhouse gas emissions. On the one hand there is no obvious emission of the carbon dioxide from the hydropower station due to the fact that is doesn’t use fossil fuel, which eliminates this gas in the process of burning. To be fair enough it should be mentioned that still some amount of carbon dioxide, which is eliminated in the process of construction of the hydropower plant, but this is quite unessential amount if compared with the fossil-fuel electricity generation . Still hydropower plants cannot be counted completely safe to the environment and further I will discuss the possible sources of emissions and threats. 1. 4. Disadvantages of hydroelectricity First possible threat of the hydropower plant is that it can have a disruptive effect on the aquatic ecosystems. There are several examples of such harmful influence. Thus, dams at the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America are proven to be the main cause of the reduction of the population of salmon due to the fact that these dams serve a barrier on the salmon way to the spawning grounds upstream. Even construction of fish ladders in salmon habitat seems not to improve the situation . Dams also prevent salmon to migrate to the sea as the fish has to pass through numerous turbines on its way. One of the possible ways out of this situation is the transportation of smolt downstream with the help of by barges. There are still many researches, which focus on the elimination of the harmful effect of the hydropower plants on the aquatic life . The other negative influence of the hydropower plants is their ability to change the downstream river environment. Hydropower plants can have a disruptive effect on the river beds and even lead to the loss of riverbanks due to fact that water exiting a turbine for the most part has a very little suspended sediment. As an example we can view the influence of Glen Canyon Dam, which is proven to contribute to the erosion of sand bars of the Grand Canyon through constant cyclic flow variation . Hydropower plant can also affect the surrounding aquatic live through changing the usual amount of dissolved oxygen in the river. Other possible threats may be attributed to the lower temperature of water exiting from turbines. This can be fatal to some aquatic faunal species. One of the most disruptive effects can be produced by the hydropower projects, which make use of the canals in order to divert a river at a shallower level to increase the head of the scheme. Sometimes this may lead to the complete change of the flow of the river and drying of the old riverbed, like in case of the Tekapo and Pukaki Rivers . However, it should be mentioned that dams of the hydropower plants can affect not only aquatic life. They can also produce a harmful effect on birds. As the possible example of this I can name the influence of dams of the Platte River in Nebraska on the Piping Plover and Sandhill Crane, which are now seriously endangered . As it was discussed above hydropower plants do not typically serve a main contributor of the greenhouse effect. However, it should be mentioned that sometimes reservoirs of hydropower plants particularly in tropical regions may be a source of methane and carbon dioxide emission. This happens because of the decay of the plant material, which involves the creation of methane, one of the main producers of the greenhouse effect. A research conducted by the World Commission on Dams, showed that in cases when the reservoir is large in comparison with the generating capacity of the plant and when there was no prior clearing of the forests, methane emission may be even higher than that of the oil-fired thermal generation plant . However, it should be mentioned that this is true only for the tropical climate. In moderate climate conditions of Canada and Northern Europe the emission of greenhouse gas is not essential and typically constitutes not more than 2 to 8 % of emissions of conventional thermal generation. Numerous contemporary researches focus on the mitigation of the forest decay effect through underwater logging operation . One more disadvantage of hydropower plants operating on large dams is associated with the relocation of the population living on the areas, where the reservoirs are constructed. Although for the most part people get compensation for this forceful relocation, no one can actually estimate spiritual and moral damage caused to the people, who have to leave the places, where their ancestors lived. In extreme cases unwise planning may lead to the loss of the valuable cultural and historic sites as this happened during the construction of the Three Gorges Dam in China, the Clyde Dam in New Zealand and the Il? su Dam in Southeastern Turkey . Finally, I’d like to discuss one of the most serious potential threats of the hydropower plants operating on large dams. Although quite rare, dam failures can be considered very dangerous and can be compared with the natural disasters. Let us only take a look at the case of the Banqiao Dam failure in China, with caused the death of 171,000 people. Millions of people became homeless. Large dams can be viewed as a weak point in war times as they quite often become a target of enemy bombardment, sabotage and terrorist actions . Besides it should be mentioned that construction of the dam should be carefully considered from the geological point of view. Otherwise it can possibly lead to such disasters as the one happened in case of the Vajont Dam in Italy in 1963, which lead to deaths of 2000 people . Hydroelectric power is one of the oldest and one of the most popular sources of energy, which is considered to have a great future. This is partially due to the fact that it is viewed as a source of renewable energy and it is very valuable in the places with an adequate water source. The main advantage of the hydropower plants is that they give relatively cheap electricity without any visible threat to environment such as waste byproducts and air emissions. Furthermore, hydropower plants are considered as an alternative to other electric plans due to the fact that its product – water – is not consumed in the process of electricity production and is subjected to reuse, which is not possible in many other electricity production processes such as ones using for example fossil fuels . On the other side hydropower has not only positive sides. Among its disadvantages many researchers list negative impact of the hydropower plants on the surrounding area. Hydropower plants operate on the reservoir, which are quite often artificially-made by flooding valleys. Quite often this process involves flooding of places, which used to have towns, farmland or places of interests. Besides, new reservoirs tend to destroy the natural habitats of aquatic life and fish places . But on the other side the same reservoirs create the new conditions, which can be a new habitat for a new aquatic life. Other possible threat is that hydropower operations using run-of-the-river dams are sure to impede the natural process if fish mitigation. This is particularly dangerous to salmon. One of the possible examples of this is problems of Pacific salmon mitigation created by the numerous large dams in the Columbia River Basin . Because of all this concerns the United States do not make emphasis on the hydropower as its main source of electricity production even due to the fact that its natural resources are quite favorable for its development. Thus, we can see that only some 2,400 of the 80,000 dams in the country are used for production of hydroelectric power. Authorities claim that construction of a new hydroelectric power plant is quit costly, but the main fact is that such construction needs much water and land, which could be used for other purposes . Besides, development of the hydropower plants in the USA is impeded by the raising environmental concerns of the public. However, this doesn’t mean that the USA will completely refuse to use hydropower as the possible source of energy. Among the possible future trends, named by the U. S. Geological Survey is the development of the small-scale hydropower plants, which can be used by single communities to generate electricity . 1. 5. Hydropower in comparison with other methods of power generation In order to realize the strengths and weaknesses of the hydropower it is very valuable to compare it with other methods of power generation. As compared with fossil-fuel generated power plants, hydroelectricity eliminates the flue gas emissions. These emissions include such environmental dangerous components as dust, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide and mercury . In comparison with the nuclear power plants, hydroelectric plants are not that powerful. However, they do not present such danger to people and do not serve the source of the nuclear waste. Besides, hydroelectric plants produce electric power with the help of water, which is a renewable energy source, in contrast with uranium . Hydroelectric power plans are also seem an advantage if compared with wind farms. This is mainly due to the fact that they are more reliable and predictable. Wind is a natural factor, which can be subjected to changes, while hydropower plants with a storage reservoir are completely reliable and able to generate power when needed even in case of low water level and rainfalls. Besides, unlike wind farms hydroelectric plants are more easily operated and regulated corresponding to changes in power demand . On the other hand hydropower plants have also some disadvantages if compared with other ways of power production. Thus, we can see that construction of fossil-fueled combustion turbines does not require any specific preliminary studies, while in order to construct an environmentally-friendly hydroelectric plant researchers should carefully conduct site, hydrological studies, and environmental and social impact assessment. In the majority of cases these studies require deep analysis of data up to 50 years old . One more disadvantage of the hydropower plants is their dependence on the level of water. Thus, in case of low rainfall or snowmelt generation of hydroelectricity can be significantly lower. However, as it was mentioned before there exist numerous ways to ensure sufficient power production even in low water years . 1. 6. Hydroelectric power production in the world In order to realize the capacity and the potential of hydroelectric power plants, let’s compare the data of the following table, representing the characteristics of hydroelectric power production in the countries with the most hydro-electric capacity. Country Annual Hydroelectric Energy Production(TWh) Installed Capacity (GW) Load Factor Peoples Republic of China [8] 416. 7 128. 57 0. 37 Canada 350. 3 68. 974 0. 59 Brazil 349. 9 69. 080 0. 56 USA 291. 2 79. 511 0. 42 Russia 157. 1 45. 000 0. 42 Norway 119. 8 27. 528 0. 49 India 112. 4 33. 600 0. 43 Japan 95. 0 27. 229 0. 37 Sweden 61. 8 France 61. 5 25. 335 0. 25 Sources: BP Annual Report, 2006.

Culturally Competent Assessments Of Children In Need

Culturally Competent Assessments Of Children In Need This article critically analyses cultural competence as a theoretical construct and explores the need for a framework that will assist social workers to carry out culturally competent assessments of children in need and their families. It is argued that the necessary components of a framework for practice in this area are a holistic definition of culture, an ethical approach to difference, self-awareness, an awareness of power relations, the adoption of a position of complete openness in working with difference and a sceptical approach to a commodified conception of cultural knowledge. The approach must avoid the totalisation of the other for personal or institutional purposes. It is argued that the Furness/Gilligan Framework (2010) reflects these concerns and could be easily adapted to assist with assessments in this area. Key words: assessment; children in need; children and families; culture; cultural competence Introduction The purpose of this paper is to critically analyse cultural competence as a theoretical construct and to explore the need for a framework that will assist social workers to identify when aspects of culture are significant in the lives and children in need and their families. The 1989 Children Act places a legal requirement to give due consideration to a childs religious persuasion, racial origin, and cultural and linguistic background in their care and in the provision of services (Section 22(5)). This provision established the principle that understanding a childs cultural background must underscore all work with children. However, there has been a longstanding concern that services to children are failing to be culturally sensitive. Concern over the disproportionate number of children in need from ethnic minorities led to their specific mention in The Governments Objective for Childrens Social Services, which states that the needs of black and ethnic minority children and families must be identified and met through services which are culturally sensitive (Department of Health, 1999a: para 16). Government policy documents increasingly recognise the multicultural reality of Britain. Yet, government assessment guidance provides practitioners with little assistance in terms of establishing ways in which cultural beliefs and practices influence family life. Social work has acknowledged the need to respond respectfully and effectively to people of all cultures, ethnic backgrounds, religions, social classes and other diversity factors in a manner that values the worth of individuals, families and communities and protects and preserves the dignity of each (BASW, 2009). There are many indications that culture is significant in determining the ways in which some people interpret events, resolve dilemmas, make decisions and view themselves, their own and others actions and how they respond to these (Gilligan, 2009; Hunt, 2005). Practitioners may not, therefore, be able to engage with service users or to facilitate appropriate interventions if they take too little account of these aspects of peoples lives or consider them on the basis of inaccurate, ill-informed or stereotyped knowledge (Gilligan, 2009; Hodge et al., 2006). Culturally competent practice is so fundamental to assessments of children in need that one might expect a well developed literature on the subject. This would act as a robust knowledge base to underpin excellence in service delivery. Thompson (2006, p. 82) admits, there is a danger that assessment will be based on dominant white norms without adequate attention being paid to cultural differences. Failure to take such differences into account will not only distort, and thereby invalidate, the basis of the assessment but will serve to alienate clients by devaluing their culture. However, the literature in this area is surprisingly sparse. Almost two decades ago it was described as a void of published information (Lynch and Hanson, 1992, p. xvii) and Welbourne (2002) argues that progress is still slow. Boushel (2000) argues that despite the governments stated concern to know more about the impact of race and ethnicity on child welfare, the limited extent to which research reflects the experience and needs of culturally diverse children fails to support a true evidence base for policy or practice. There is evidence that aspects of culture can all too easily be underestimated, overlooked or ignored, sometimes with extremely serious consequences (Laming, 2003; Gilligan, 2008; OHagan, 2001). Many mainstream childcare and child protection texts make little reference to culture (OHagan, 2001). Not one of the twenty pieces of research into differing aspects of child protection work considered in Messages From Research (Dartington, 1995) explore the cultural aspects of any of the cases dealt with. There is now a growing body of literature written for health and social care professionals about the importance of developing and incorporating cultural sensitivity and awareness in their work with others (Campinha-Bacote, 1994; CHYPERLINK http://bjsw.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/bcp159v2?maxtoshow=hits=10RESULTFORMAT=fulltext=social+work+religion+and+beliefsearchid=1FIRSTINDEX=0resourcetype=HWCIT#BCP159C4andHYPERLINK http://bjsw.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/bcp159v2?maxtoshow=hits=10RESULTFORMAT=fulltext=social+work+religion+and+beliefsearchid=1FIRSTINDEX=0resourcetype=HWCIT#BCP159C4a HYPERLINK http://bjsw.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/bcp159v2?maxtoshow=hits=10RESULTFORMAT=fulltext=social+work+religion+and+beliefsearchid=1FIRSTINDEX=0resourcetype=HWCIT#BCP159C4andHYPERLINK http://bjsw.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/bcp159v2?maxtoshow=hits=10RESULTFORMAT=fulltext=social+work+religion+and+beliefsearchid=1FIRSTINDEX=0resourcetype=HWCIT#BCP159C4 Furman, 1999; H odge, 2001, 2005; Moss, 2005; Gilligan and Furness, 2006; Sue, 2006; Laird, 2008). However, despite the apparent emergence of a more general recognition and acknowledgement of these issues amongst many professionals, relevant day-to-day practice remains largely dependent on individual views and attitudes (Gilligan, 2009). A Department of Health (2002) study of 40 deaths and serious injuries to children found that, information on the ethnic background of children and carers was vague and unsophisticated in that it failed to consider features of the childs culture, religion and race, as specified in the Children Act 1989 (Department of Health, 2002, p. 26). The failure to conceptualize accurately the cultural and social context within which minority ethnic parents are operating impacts on interventions offered, which served to reflect and reproduce existing powerlessness. . . (Bernard, 2001, p. 3). If, as this suggests, there is a deficit in social workers ability to conceptualize mi nority ethnic service users social and cultural context in assessments of children, partly accounted for by a paucity of literature in this area, the implications for practice are potentially a failure to carry out culturally competent practice for many vulnerable children. In The Victoria Climbie Inquiry Report 2003, Lord Lamming commented that, The legislative framework is sound, the gap is in the implementation (2003, p. 13). Report after report has expressed concern over the limited skills of social services staff when undertaking assessments and designing interventions with ethnic minority children (Batty, 2002). While many professionals acknowledge that there is a need to work in culturally sensitive ways, there is evidence that many professionals working with children and families do not always feel equipped to do so (Gilligan, 2003). Gilligan (2009) found that whilst professionals may recognise that service users beliefs are very important, there is little consistency in how such recognition impacts on practice. Even within his small sample, there was considerable variation in attitudes and much to suggest that actions and decisions are the product of individual choice rather than professional judgement or agency policies (Gilligan, 2009). Pract itioners are able to continue with culture-blind approaches without these being significantly challenged by agency policies or by professional cultures (Gilligan, 2009). There is a clear need to look again at what we mean by cultural competence and to develop a framework that will assist social workers to identify when aspects of culture are significant in the lives and children in need and their families. Defining culture There is a clear recognition that aspects of culture are significant in the lives of children and their families and that this needs to be considered in assessment practice. In order to address the lack of understanding and ineffective practice among practitioners in this area it is necessary to provide clear definitions of culture and cultural competence. Assessing children in need and their families is a complex task. There is evidence of considerable variation between social workers definitions of the essential components of good enough parenting, reflecting the variation between professionals in definition of need (Daniel, 2000). When reviewing cases of serious injury or death, the Department of Health concluded that: . . .areas suggested by this research as ripe for development [include] reaching common definitions of being in need or at risk of significant harm (Department of Health, 2002). It is in this context of ambiguity that culture must be defined. The 1989 Children Act uses the wording culture as a statutory requirement in addressing the needs of black children, but does not offer guidance about its definition. Culture is a highly discursive term and the object of an intensive theoretical and political dispute (Benhabib, 1999, 2002). The construction of culture as a theoretical concept has always been affected by entangled perspectives, particularly in social work (Boggs, 2004). Harrison and Turner (2010) found that participants in their study spent considerable time discussing the complex nature of culture and the difficulties in defining it. This means that when looking at the practice of cultural competence as part of assessing need and risk the scope for conceptual ambiguity is vast (Welbourne, 2002). Eagleton (2000, p. 1) states that, culture is said to be one of the two or three most complex words in the English language. OHagan (2001) argues that culture is a complex concept, with virtually limitless parameters, which cannot be defined or explained in the two or three sentences usually allocated to them in much health and social care literature. For example, Payne (1997, p. 244) provides a rather ambiguous definition of culture: a difficult concept. It implies a relatively unchanging, dominating collection of social values, and assumes that members of an identified group will always accept these. It is possible to examine definitions of culture that stem from anthropology, sociology, psychology and cultural geography (OHagan, 2001). The anthropologist Edward Tylor (1871) formulated the most enduring definition of culture: culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. The sociologist Giddens (1993: 31) says that culture refers to the ways of life of the members of a society, or of groups, or within a society. It includes how they dress, their marriage customs and family life, their patterns of work, religious ceremonies and leisure pursuits. OHagan (2001) defines culture as the distinct way of life of the group, race, class, community or nation to which the individual belongs. It is the first and most important frame of reference from which ones sense of identity evolves. OHagans definition draws on anthropology and is wide enough to challenge essentialist notions of culture, yet defined enough to be meaningful. It also balances the community and individual aspects of culture. When we consider this definition of culture it can be seen that all assessment of children in need occurs within a cultural context. In fact it is perhaps better understood as taking place within a number of interacting cultural contexts, with the culture of the c hild at the heart of the process. The use of the concept of culture in developing cultural competence and not race has been a deliberate shift in terminology from anti-racist theorising. Anti-racist theory, with its emphasis on race, has been criticised for dichotomising blackness and whiteness which does not permit any differentiation in the experience of racism between different ethnic groups (Laird, 2008). The idea of racial homogeneity has been enduring but this idea must be challenged. White people and black people are not homogeneous groups (Laird, 2008). Culture is a broader term than race or ethnicity and can include aspects of age, gender, social status, religion, language, sexual orientation and disability (Connolly, Crichton-Hill and Ward, 2005). Using the term culture allows for difference of attitude and experience between individuals who are part of the same ethnic or racial grouping. If one considers that culture is learned from generation to generation, it is inevitably person specific and shaped by o nes personal and societal context. The Challenge of Cultural Competence There are a variety of paradigms in the study of race, ethnicity and culture which are located in particular socio-historical and political contexts. Cultural competence is just one of these and has not escaped criticism in the professional literature. Writers in social work have argued that cultural competence depoliticises race relations and promotes othering (Pon, 2009), assumes workers themselves are from a dominant culture (Sakamoto, 2007) and is based on the flawed assumption that acquiring cultural knowledge will result in competent practice (Dean, 2001; Ben-Ari and Strier, 2010). Despite its wide acceptance, the concept remains subject to multiple, often conflicting, views. There is a need to critically analyse cultural competence as a theoretical construct in order to make it meaningful to practitioners and to provide a basis for best practice. Concern with racism emerged in the social work profession in the 1970s and during the 1980s major texts appeared to guide practice (Payne, 2005). The concept of anti-racist practice emerged built on the principles that race is a social construct that has been used to justify oppression and that it is necessary to critically examine the dynamics of power relationships that produce oppression. Anti-racist theorists have criticised advocates of cultural competence for creating an exotic understanding of people from ethnic minorities and for not recognising practice issues of social inequality or racial discrimination (OHagan, 2001). Cultural competence has been presented as apolitical and has been criticised for failing to address the power struggles of history (Barn, 2007). Key issues of power are absent from much of the analytical thinking around the paradigm of cultural competence (Barn, 2007). Given that the political, cultural and professional perspectives on race and ethnicity hav e important consequences for minority ethnic children and families, social workers need to incorporate an understanding of power relations as a key tool for subverting racism. A more sophisticated and nuanced approach is necessary, which will involve a paradigm shift from essentialist notions of race which view culture in rigid and inflexible ways to one in which cultural sensitivity is understood within the context of power relations (Barn, 2007). It is important to widen the debate beyond black and white, to recognise that racial, ethnic and cultural groups are not homogenous, but to not abandon the challenging of racism and other forms of oppression. Culturally competent practice needs to take account of the tensions between different cultural norms and values within the UK, not only between ethnically and culturally distinct groups of people. Social work norms and values may not be those of the majority of Europeans, or even of the mainstream white UK population, as the case of A v UK demonstrates. Writers such as Olsen (1981), Korbin (1981, 1991) and Thorpe (1994) have problematised the notion of a universal standard of childcare, pointing to significant cross-cultural variability. The essence of this challenge is that standardized definitions of child abuse must be contested as they necessarily relate to culturally defined norms. Korbin HYPERLINK http://bjsw.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/35/6/901?maxtoshow=hits=10RESULTFORMAT=fulltext=how+and+when+does+athnicity+mattersearchid=1FIRSTINDEX=0resourcetype=HWCIT#KORBIN-1991(1991), in what is now a classic essay, warns against the dangers of both Eurocentric practice and over ly culturally relativist practice. On the one hand, Eurocentric practice serves only to impose one set of cultural beliefs and practices as preferable and therefore reproduce patterns of domination and oppression. In the British literature, concern has been expressed that minority families are too frequently pathologised and stereotyped, with workers over-relying on cultural explanations for their problems and utilizing a model of cultural deficit (Williams and Soyden, 2005; Chand, 2000; Ahmed, 1994). It is argued that they receive more and speedier punitive services than preventative/care services (Williams and Soyden, 2005). Lees (2002) argues from her research that there is a tendency to pathologise behaviour that is not culturally normative, an example being negatively evaluating the act of running away from an abusive home among young black women rather than adopting passive coping strategies. At the other extreme, Korbin notes extreme cultural relativism, in which all judgements of humane treatment of children are suspended in the name of cultural rights, may be used to justify a lesser standard of care for some children (1991, p. 68). It has been suggested that cultural relativism freezes the status quo by making standard-setting according to universal norms impossible (Laird, 2008). Barn et al (1997) found that adoption of a position of cultural relativity through fear of being labelled as racist affected statutory provision to children and families. They found that some social workers were reluctant to intervene to protect children because they believed that abusive behaviour was sanctioned by their culture (Barn et al, 1997). The child abuse inquiry reports of Jasmine Beckford (Blom-Cooper, 1985) and Tyra Henry (Lambeth, 1987) concluded that culture had impinged upon events leading to the deaths of these children. It was suggested that workers were too optimistic in their assessments of carers and that abusive behaviours were interpreted as aspects of culture. Whilst these concerns turn on the recognition of aspects of cultural difference as significant in the process of assessment, it has long been noted in the social work literature that practitioners fail at the first hurdle, in as much as they do not recognise at all the importance of culture: a culture-blind approach (Dominelli, 1998; Boushol, 2000; Graham, 2002). The culture-blind approach eschews difference in its search for a universal formula. It suggests that a standard of good practice can be established which fits all. For example, Payne (1997) rejects the argument that western social work theory may be incompatible with some of the core components of other cultures and ignores the fact that it was used extensively in the processes of annihilation of various indigenous cultures (OHagan, 2001). Despite being consistently criticised as naive and oppressive, this approach represents a powerful paradigm within social work (Williams and Soyden, 2005; Dominelli, 1998). Finding the balance between these concerns poses considerable difficulties for those charged with assessments of children in need (Dominelli,HYPERLINK http://bjsw.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/35/6/901?maxtoshow=hits=10RESULTFORMAT=fulltext=how+and+when+does+athnicity+mattersearchid=1FIRSTINDEX=0resourcetype=HWCIT#DOMINELLI-1998A HYPERLINK http://bjsw.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/35/6/901?maxtoshow=hits=10RESULTFORMAT=fulltext=how+and+when+does+athnicity+mattersearchid=1FIRSTINDEX=0resourcetype=HWCIT#DOMINELLI-1998A1998). What is needed is an approach to practice that can challenge normative stereotypes of appropriate behaviour by parents or children while promoting the rights of children to safety and good enough parenting. Brophy (2003, p. 674) states Balancing a respect for differing styles of parenting and guarding against inappropriate inroads into lifestyles and belief systems, while also protecting children from ill-treatment, remains an exacting task. Professiona ls can be castigated for intervening too quickly or too slowly. Social workers must operate with cultural sensitivity within the assessment process but at the same time recognize that at the heart of anti-oppressive practice is a commitment to the non-relative core value of human equality. A Knowledge Based Competency? Cultural competence as a practice response to these issues has been conceptualised in several ways. There are not one, but multiple definitions of cultural competence and it appears to be a changeable, evolving concept (Harrison and Turner, 2010). The frameworks available to assist practitioners in assessing aspects of culture are predominantly of two types: assessment models that try to aid in the collection of information and the understanding of specific service users strengths, needs and circumstances (Carballeira, 1996; Hodge, 2001, 2005; Hogan-Garcia, 2003; Sue, 2006) and reflective models that aim to help the practitioner to develop relevant skills and awareness in general terms (Green, 1999; Connolly, Crichton-Hill and Ward, 2005; Papadopoulos, 2006). Assessment models of cultural competence frequently refer to the integration and transformation of knowledge about individuals and groups of people into specific standards, practices and attitudes used in appropriate cultural settings to increase the quality of services, thereby producing better outcomes (Davis and Donald, 1997). To work effectively with diversity, practitioners are expected to gain knowledge of different cultural practices and worldviews, to have a positive attitude towards cultural differences and develop cross-cultural skills (Ben-Ari, 2010). Examples of assessment models include the LIVE and LEARN Model developed by Carballeira (1996) which identifies a series of activities which practitioners need to engage in to be culturally competent: Like; Inquire; Visit; Experience; Listen; Evaluate; Acknowledge; Recommend and Negotiate. Another example is Campinha-Bacotes (2002, pp. 182-3) ASKED model which identifies five dimensions of cultural competence: cultural Awaren ess; cultural Skill; cultural Knowledge; cultural Encounter; and cultural Desire. In line with this approach Sue (2006) argues that culturally competent social work practice is defined as the service providers acquisition of awareness, knowledge, and skills needed to function effectively in a pluralistic democratic society (2006: 29). However, there is disparity in the literature as to the knowledge that is necessary for effective culturally responsive practice. The above models adopt a cultural literacy approach in which culture specific information and practice is categorised under broad ethnic group categories (Connolly, Crichton-Hill and Ward, 2005). For example, Lairds (2008) book Anti-Oppressive Social Work contains chapters entitled communities with roots in India, communities with roots in the Caribbean and communities with roots in China. Similarly, OHagan (2001) includes chapters about Islam, American Indians and Australian Aborigines in his book about cultural competence. Laird (2008, p. 156) states It is only by gaining cultural knowledge, that is, learning to appreciate the variety of ways in which people with different heritages organise their lives, that practitioners from the white-majority community can gain cultural awareness. This is because cultural knowledge offers practitioners a comparative analytical tool with which to examine cultural influences upon their own lives. From this approach knowledge is seen as central to the development of cultural competence skills, which are fundamentally knowledge-based learned capacities (Ben-Ari and Strier, 2010). It is widely believed that cultural knowledge is the key to interpreting the code of cultural diversity (Ben-Ari and Strier, 2010). It is argued that without knowledge, one cannot be aware of the presence of biases in professional practices and practice could remain ethnocentric (Adams et al., 2001). There is a tendency to think that if a worker learns about a culture, what Spradley (1994) calls explicit cultural knowledge, then they will have a framework for working with that culture. Widely existing conceptions of cultural competence assume that the other is knowable and that this knowledge is a prerequisite for being culturally competent (Ben-Ari and Strier, 2010). A radically different stance has been suggested by Ben-Ari and Strier (2010) who examine cultural competence through the lens of Levinas (1969) theory of other. Levinas (1969) proposes that ethics precedes knowledge. He argues that our humanity is realised through the wisdom of love and not through the love of wisdom (the literal Greek meaning of the word philosophy). In other words, ethics precedes any objective searching after truth (Beals, 2007). Levinas thesis ethics as first philosophy means that the pursuit of knowledge is but a secondary feature of a more basic ethical duty to the other. Within this framework, the main question becomes what relation to the other is necessary in order for knowledge to be possible? He argues that the other is not knowable and cannot be made into an object of the self, as is done by traditional philosophy. By emphasising the primacy of ethics to knowledge, Levinas creates a new framework for working across differences. This raises fundamental questions with regard to the nature of social knowledge. Laird (2008) argues that the most critical requirement of culturally sensitive social work is to keep open the dialogue between people from different ethnic backgrounds and to ensure that each individual emerges as a unique composite of values, beliefs and aspirations. It is necessary to consider how accumulated knowledge about other cultures has the potential to limit our openness in our encounters with people who are other to us. Knowledge about other cultures can lead to the experience of totality: something is nothing more than what I make out of it (Ben-Ari and Strier, 2010). When we totalise the other we reduce our understanding of it. Levinas (1987) proposes that we should aim for the experience of infinity, that is, the recognition that something is more than what we could make of it. Berlin (2002, p. 144) notes the danger of totalising people from other cultures, stating classifying people on th e basis of group membership only gives us the illusions that we are being culturally sensitive, when, in fact, we are failing to look beyond easy characterisations for the particular and specific ways this person is understanding, feeling and acting. A knowledge based approach to cultural competency has a tendency to create overgeneralisations of cultural groups and can lead to the worker perceiving themselves as an expert despite the likelihood of them being in a position of cultural naivety (Connolly, Crichton-Hill and Ward, 2005). The implication of this is that culturally competent assessments must come from an ethical standpoint of openness on the part of the practitioner. OHagan (2001) states, The workers need not be highly knowledgeable about the cultures of the people they serve, but they must approach culturally different people with openness and respect. It must be recognised that thoughts, feelings and actions are influenced by external and internal variables that are cultural in origin and, as a consequence, that each individual who enters the child welfare system is unique (Connolly, Crichton-Hill and Ward, 2005). A consequence of this is that perceptions of the child welfare problem will be unique to each client or family. Understanding how the family perceives the problem enables child protection workers to work in a more culturally responsive way in developing solutions. Cooper (2001, p. 732) states the meanings in context of a childs injury are not revealed through objective facts or through expe rt objective assessment or diagnosis. An agreed meaning, understanding and potential for change can only be co-constructed, with the service user and their social relationships and networks, within a situated organisation and multi-agency context. Aligning solutions with the cultural identity of the family provides the potential for family-centred responses. Cultural competence must move away from an emphasis on cultural knowledge if it is to provide an ethical framework for working with difference. A Matter of Reflection? The second main type of cultural competence model is a reflective model. Reflection has been part of practice discourse for a number of decades (Schon, 1983; 1987). More recently the concept of critical reflection has taken hold (Fook, 2002). A critically reflective response challenges the values and attitudes associated with professional conduct (Connolly, Crichton-Hill and Ward, 2005). An example of a reflective model of cultural competence is the cultural-reflective model developed by Connolly, Crichton-Hill and Ward (2005). This model includes the processes of cultural thinking; critical reflection and reflective practice outcomes. A strength of the model is that is recognises the interaction between the self and the other within interactions between people of different cultures. Ben-Ari and Strier (2010) argue that the development of the concept of cultural competence could benefit from considering the significance of self and other interdependence in contemporary debates on cultural diversity. They analyse relations between self and other using Levinas theory of other and explore the ways in which these relations play a pivotal role in working with differences. A persons definition of the other is part of what defines the self (Levinas, 1969). The idea that the self requires the other to define itself has been expressed by many writers (Brown, 1995; Riggins, 1997; Gillespie, 2007). It has been recognised that the concept of otherness is integral to the understanding of identities as people construct roles for themselves in relation to an other. The implication of this is that that all cross-cultural encounters between social workers and service users bring into play not only the heritage of the service user, but also that of the practitioner (Laird, 2008). Connolly, Crichton-Hill and Ward (2005, p. 59) note that assessments of the social world are likely to say more about the perceiver than the persons under study. Social workers need to discover and reflect upon their own value system and traditions in order to be culturally competent. Reflective models, such as Connolly, Crichton-Hill and Wards (2005), recognise that our cultural thinking responses are often automatic and outside of our control. It is necessary to ask where our responses and language come from (Connolly, Crichton-Hill and Wards, 2005). The reflective process encourages an examination of values and beliefs underpinning reactions. It involves challenging our assumptions, recognising stereotypes and recognising power and its effects. Without this it is easy to think that it is our way of being is the norm and other people who are ethnic, idiosyncratic, culturally pe

ClockWork Orange :: essays research papers

â€Å" Listening to the J.S. Bach, I began to pony away to the brown gorgeousness of the starry German master, that I would like to have tolchocked them both harder and ripped them to ribbons on their own floor. (34) â€Å" Young Alex, naà ¯ve, unloving, and uncaring to the world he lived in. The screaming decade of the 70’s is the setting of when the story takes place. A group of young teenage boys out and about looking for a good time but by what definition is a good time? If some people see a good time as hanging out at the movies and talking on the phone, then their imagination is far off from what Alex and his droogs are plotting. Walking around in a small clique of 4 wearing and dressing in their own fashion and style. Alex is the leader of his small army and friends. He first introduces his strange behavior by walking the streets in search for some action and by means of action meaning fights, drinking, and sometimes in search of young girls to ravage. Alex’s venture is to change his life around without realizing what he once was to a new beginning or becoming an adult. The beginning of his teenage life was being a young violent seeker and having a certain love for immoral acts against people or any living subject that he could find a way to hurt. Like young teenagers or youths there is a stage that they go through where they believe they are infinite and nothing can harm them or create a recognizable danger. There is a journey to becoming an adult and it may not be as violent or as sad a journey as young Alexs’ but there is that road that teenagers travel down where they may learn their mistake and right they wrongs. Alex may not realize what his quest is in the beginning but it becomes clear once he has undergone the worst of his punishment that in return to fit the crimes he had committed. Alex begins his journey of departure when he challenges another group of boys to a duel, which resulted in near death to one of the members of the opposing gang. Alex and his droogs get away clean without remorse of fear from authority. They go out once again on their spree of violence in search of new ways to receive entertainment that meets their definition.

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The Odyssey vs. American History X   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Odyssey and American History X don’t share similarities in the plot, theme or time period, but they have an ingredient common in many stories. Odysseus and Derek are challenged with deadly obstacles and they overcome these difficulties with the help of a mentor. A guide saves both characters and assists them in their return home. Odysseus and Derek need the support and help of a trusted friend who will guide them through their dramatic adventure.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Bob Sweeny, a trusted and loyal friend to Derek helped him develop into a well-rounded person. After Derek Vinyard’s father died, he fell into a self-destructive pattern ultimately leading to racism. After spending three years in jail, Derek began to realize he needed to liberate himself and his family from this hate-infested lifestyle. Derek turned to Mr. Sweeny and begged for his forgiveness and his help. While in prison, Mr. Sweeny told Derek, â€Å"your anger is consuming you, your anger is shutting down the brain god gave you† (American History X). Mr. Sweeny guided Derek into the right direction. He understood that in order for Derek to be truly liberated he needed to learn on his own, much like Athena. He guided Derek, but never persuaded him to change. Surviving jail was nearly impossible, but with the help of Mr. Sweeny, Derek overcame imprisonment and returned home.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Athena is much like Mr. Sweeny, helping Odysseus return home. She disguised Odysseus into a beggar, consulted with other Gods to allow him to return home, and she helped devise a plan to defend his home. Although Athena assisted Odysseus greatly, she never chose a path he should take, much like Mr. Sweeny. Both Derek and Odysseus show their gratitude toward their mentor, however Odysseus boldly states his affection in the following passage, â€Å" Mentor, stand by me and remember your old comrade who always did the right thing by you. We are yearsmates!† (Chapter 22, Page 247). Here, Odysseus thanks Athena for her assistance and her loyalty. This was also done by Derek but in an indirect manner. The most prevalent comparison between these two stories is the relationship between tests and ordeals. Derek must overcome racism in order to survive prison, and Odysseus needs to identify that his excessive pride delayed his return home several years. The gangs in prison threatened Derek every day. They pose a potential negative impact on his family if he continued to demonstrate his hatred.

Is Religion Just a Joke? Essay -- Religion Religious Essays

Is Religion Just a Joke? Driving with my friend to the movies one evening last winter we discovered a group of people bundled up and picketing by The Safari movie theatre in Moorhead.à  My friend and I didn’t know what movie we wanted to watch, but these protesters made up our mind.à  We decided to see the movie â€Å"Dogma† because that was the very movie these outraged people were boycotting.à  Sometimes people carry their religion to the point where it has an adverse effect on people.à  This was the case that evening. As we watched â€Å"Dogma,† my friend and I laughed hysterically.à  It wasn’t nearly as bad as the protestors suggested.à  The view the â€Å"outraged Christians† and I seemed to disagree on was they took the movie literally, whereas I personally took it as mere fiction.à  In my opinion, it was just another religious comedy to bring the sometimes-scary topic of â€Å"religion† down to a point that seems more human in the eyes of the average American today. By making the topic of religion humorous, we as a society can take a look at the different aspects of this complicated and controversial issue.à  What is ethically right or wrong has been seen in many issues such as cloning, euthanasia, and abortion.à  Religion, along with these other issues, is often hard to confront.à  With the aid of movies, such as â€Å"Dogma† and â€Å"Keeping the Faith,† we are able to delve into the issue of religion more easily.à  Let us now take a look at these two movies.à  â€Å"Keeping the Faith† starts with a priest, Brian Finn, played by Edward Norton, telling his complicated story to the local bartender in New York who thinks he’s heard it all already.à  Brian tells of a childhood friendship between himself, Jake Schram, and a girl named Anna Reilly.à  The three... ...ck Jesus, a thirteenth apostle played by Chris Rock who was written out of the bible because he was black (having a black savior is okay, but not a black apostle), Mary not being a virgin, after all, â€Å"Do you think Joseph would stay around if he wasn’t getting any?,† and God being a woman.à  Anyone who would take these humorous and outrageous suggestions literally is more of a joke than this movie.à  In my opinion, a movie is just a movie and nothing more, other than to bring into focus a difficult subject matter.à  Therefore, funny movies about religion actually help viewers think critically about religion.à  The protestors seemed to want to make the religious comedy genre be blasphemy on God, where that is not what the movie was trying to do.à  Which brings out the question: Who is making religion a joke?à  -The movies? -Or the people carrying their religion too far?

Revolutionary road Essay

Revolutionary Road was a profound movie. This film portrays the malaise that had lied behind the American Dream during the mid-1950s. During that era, the image of the nuclear family living in suburbia where the man is the bread-winner and the woman as the domesticated housewife was considered as the dominant idea constructed by a patriarchal society. This film tracks the unraveling of April and Frank Wheeler, a couple who had unwantedly settled with two children living in suburbia unable to get themselves out of the empty and meaningless life they have. April had thought she and Frank were different than everyone else around them that had fallen victim to conformity. She thought they were deserving of a more exciting life and so convinces Frank to move to Paris rather than being stuck as a chance to escape from being a lonely unfulfilling housewife. But as soon as April realizes she is pregnant for the third time, plans to move Paris had to be abandoned which then really sends April over the edge. Both Frank and April are individuals in their own right, the suffering and inflicting suffering eventually leads to a tragic end to April’s life through a self-induced abortion. As well gender stereotypes, gender discrimination, androcentrism are well indicated within this film and era which will be further discussed. This film expresses the suffering of how many domesticated women had felt in the era of the 1950s. It reveals the sickness of a culture that tends to shut down a woman’s feelings in the self-serving illusion that a nice home with a yard, committed stay at home mom and a bread-winning husband were the answer for a happy and fulfilling life. Evidence of female discrimination were depicted when April is shown to take out the garbage and realizes all the trash is perfectly lined up along with one and another along the streets and during the scene where Frank is shown to be standing in the train having a breath of fresh air while having a cigarette (Orawan, 2010). These two scenes basically show the difference in the amount of freedom and choices that a man and woman had, where married women are shown to be confined to their home with their household and childrearing duties, meanwhile the man gets the freedom and choice of going about whatever they like outside their home (Orawan, 2010.). In another scene showcasing the gender discrimination that was placed on women was the topic on abortion. Besides being a high-risk mortality procedure, it was also illegal during the 50s as a way  to prevent women’s autonomy and restrict them to their traditional child-bearing role (Gordon, 1990). As such this was portrayed when April attempts to take abortion into her own hands as a desperate attempt to get her life back in hopes to take control of her life and so to be free to pursue to her dreams (Orawan, 2010). April had no rights over the choice to reproduce due to the standards set by society which had led to her taking the abortion into her own hands (Tas, 2010). It is evident that society at the time had preceded the belief about women’s duty to be subservient to their man and become a baby producing machines plus the ambivalence felt towards women that had led to discrimination of women (Matlin, 2012, p. 39) The movie clearly presents androcentrism in one particular scene for me, when Frank makes his way to work and all the people around him were men with very few that were women. This just shows the freedom and normalcy of men being able to work and be able to be out during the day. The very few women depicted to be working or on the city streets are only women that were unmarried. To me, this showed that women still had their individual identity until they became married where the women adopts the identity of her husband to become his supportive and obedient wife. Another issue is that even though unmarried women were able to obtain work, but because women were also considered as second class human due to androcentrism they were limited in options as well. Unmarried women were discriminated from higher employment positions with the choices of only low-levels jobs such as administrative or secretarial jobs (Tas, 2014). As it is suggested by Matlin (2012), there are negative attitudes to wards women’s competence especially from men of traditional views; as such women during the 50s were seen only capable of dull, mind-numbing jobs. Gender stereotypes were particularly evident when the Wheelers had told their friends, Miley and Shep Campbells, that they were moving to Paris and that April would take on the bread-winning role making Frank a dependent. In reaction to the news, Shep had thought their plan was immature imposing the stereotypical idea again that married women should not be working and that the man should be the one bringing home the money to support the family; this was the norm. This is clearly evidence of benevolent sexism as it shows  the assumption that women should not be held with so much work responsibility and should be taken care of by the man (Matlin, 2012, p. 58). When Shep asked Miley to confirm his opinion about the Wheeler’s being immature, she hesitantly agreed and begins to cries. This scene was of huge significance as this reveals the suffering that Miley feels as a housewife and by her husband’s comment she realizes that her life is hopeless in that she will remain i n her current position for the rest of her life. I can see that Miley is just a bit jealous of the Wheelers for making the move to Paris, she desperately wants out but is afraid to tell Shep what she feels inside. The consequences of internalizing gender stereotypes are represented in the same scene where Miley does not reveal her real thoughts and so allows her husband to further oppress her. Miley is influenced by the gender stereotypes that is presented in society and assumes the role of a subservient housewife. Miley did not say anything to act or rebel against her husband as she is afraid to appear to be a disobedient wife and accepts her husband’s comments about the Wheelers, revealing the fact that she has given up on her own principle. Additionally, Miley cries to let out her emotional frustration in that she then realizes the hopeless and empty life that she holds and inability to express her feeling shows her acceptance of her role in life; this in some way I feel is abusive to oneself psychologically and physically. Revolutionary Road is definitely a blast from the past taking on a Feminist approach to revealing all the negative effects of women living in suburbia during the 1950s. Due to androcentrism being the main idea of society, many negative attitudes and beliefs about women were expressed in this revealing the gender stereotypes and discriminations that were experienced. The character April Wheeler had revealed the sufferings of living a life with no choices bounded by her house, husband and children. With the women’s movement of the 1970s much of the negative attitudes and discrimination towards women have decreased in North America (Silverstein, 2008). However, I believe the idea of the nuclear family, the American Dream is still seen as for many, such as my family, is still the ideal way of life. References Gordan, L. (1990). Woman’s Body. Woman’s Right. Retrieved from http://www.feminist.com/resources/ourbodies/abortion.html Matlin, M. W. (2012). The Psychology of Women. (7th Edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cencage Learning. Orawan, C. (2010, March 9). Revolutionary Road: Feminist Liberation in Post-War Suburban Prison. Retrieved from http://blog.nationmultimedia.com/print.php?id=8050 Silverstein, M. (2008, December 26). Feminism & Revolutionary Road. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/melissa-silverstein/feminism-revolutionary- ro_b_153604.html Tas. (2010, April 14). Was ‘Revolutionary Road’ about Feminism? Retrieved from http://metrac.wordpress.com/2010/04/14/was-revolutionary-road-about-feminism/